Median Empire

   A powerful but short-lived imperial realm created by the Medes in the seventh century b.c. and one of the leading factors in both the demise of Assyria and the rise of the Persian Empire. Perhaps because of threats from the Assyrians, who dwelled directly west of Media in western Iran, by the late 700s b.c. the Medes had become organized under a series of war leaders. Their identities and deeds are now largely shrouded in the mists of time. The Greek historian Herodotus claimed that the key early figures in the creation of the Median nation, its capital of Ecbatana, and its empire were Deioces and Phraortes. "The achievement of Deioces, who reigned for fifty years," Herodotus writes, was to unite under his rule the people of Media - Busae, Parataceni, Struchates, Arazanti, Budii, Magi; beyond these he did not extend his empire. His son Phraortes, however, who succeeded to the throne on his father's death, was not content to be king only of Media; he carried his military operations further afield, and the first country he attacked and brought into subjection was Persia [in Fars, in southern Iran]. (Histories 1.105)

   Modern scholars think that Deioces and Phraortes, as described by Herodotus, may have been composite characters based on confused secondhand accounts of several early Median rulers. There is no doubt that Cyaxares II (reigned ca. 625-585 b.c.) was a real person, however. And it appears that he was a dynamic ruler who almost single-handedly created the Median Empire. He reorganized the military and enlisted recruits from minor Iranian peoples whom Media held as vassals, including the Persians. When Cyaxares was confident in the size and abilities of his forces, he attacked Assyria in about 614 b.c. He was aided by the Babylonians, with whom he had made an alliance. The great Assyrian city of Nineveh fell to the combined Median and Babylonian assault in 612, and the once-mighty Assyrian Empire rapidly fell to pieces. To cement and celebrate the alliance that had brought down the Assyrians, Cyaxares gave his daughter Amytis in marriage to Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylonia.

   The rise of Media and elimination of Assyria created a new balance of power in the Near East. The region was now dominated by four nations of approximately the same strength: Media, Babylonia, Lydia in Anatolia, and Egypt. But Cyaxares was not content with maintaining this balance of power. He launched a series of conquests that gained Media an empire stretching from the southern shores of the Caspian Sea in the east to Armenia (Urartu) in the west. Then, circa 589 b.c., he turned to the northwest and invaded Lydia, but he failed to conquer it.

   Having established the Median Empire, Cyaxares died and was succeeded by Asty-ages (reigned ca. 585-550 b.c.). Not only was Astyages a mediocre ruler, he also faced major logistical difficulties in holding together the huge Median realm, including communication and transportation of soldiers and supplies over long distances. The threat of rebellions by subject peoples was another problem. Most of these peoples were discontented with Median rule and had to be kept in line by the use of force. The fact that many of the Median nobles resented Astyages was another factor in the overall weakness and vulnerability of the realm. These and other factors made Media a tempting target for would-be imperialists. And in about 553 b.c. Cyrus II, ruler of the Persian region of Fars, led a rebellion that soon toppled Astyages from his throne.

   Thanks to Cyrus's foresight, however, Media was not destroyed but instead was absorbed into the new Persian Empire. He actually honored the Medes, appointing a number of Median nobles as courtiers and army officers. He also made the Median homeland the first satrapy (province) of his own realm, calling it Mada, and kept Ecbatana intact as his second capital. Thereafter, people routinely referred to the Persian realm as the empire of the Medes and Persians.

   See also: Astyages; Cyaxares II; Ecbatana; Media